Realism Relations Political

Realism Relations Political How is classical realism different to neo-realism? Neo-realism is a school of thought in international relations, which has its origins in classical realism which was advanced by writers such as Hans Morgenthau. He believed that states acted only in the pursuit of their self-interests to promote survival. Kenneth Waltz introduced a new approach, through his book, ‘Theory of International Politics, claiming that neo-realism can strengthen the previous paradigm of realism by looking at international relations in a more structural and methodological perspective and as a result, enhanced conclusions can be obtained. Therefore, in order to assess the differences between realism and neo-realism and whether Waltzs neo-realism is an improvement on classical realism, it is firstly important to define both neo-realism and classical realism. It is also important to consider Waltzs perspective in detail and analyse the elements which could be deemed as improvements. Thus, it will be argued that neo-realism is an improvement on classical realism due to its more rigorous scientific approach to international relations. Morgenthau was an international theorist who advocated the paradigm of realism. His theory consists of many principles which he believed gave a more pragmatic approach to international relations compared to the earlier paradigm of idealism. He considers states to be aggressive and power-seeking and that these specific characteristics stem from the imperfect humans from which they are constructed. Additionally, he deems that states are the key actors in international relations and stresses that national interests dominate state behaviour. This poses the question whether states can have interests, but realists like Morgenthau argue that states not only have interests but also behave in accordance with these interests. He further personifies states adding they will continually pursue their self-interests even though it may be detrimental to others. Central to Morgenthaus theory was the concept of power as the dominant goal in international politics and the definition of national interes t in terms of power. He called for recognition of the nature and limits of power and for the use of traditional methods of diplomacy, including compromise. In, ‘Politics Among Nations, Morgenthau outlines his six principles in international relations, with the first of these being that, ‘politics is governed by objective laws which have their root in human nature. These objective laws cannot be changed nor affected over time and human preferences. Therefore, the laws of human nature, tied with an assumption that actors are rational, provide a good framework for the explanation of international relations. His second principle regards the understanding of international politics through the, ‘concept of interest defined as power, and so sets the realm of international politics as autonomous to other spheres of action such as ethics and religion. The third principle in his doctrine focuses on the premise that state power can change but the concept of interest remains constant. The political and cultural situation determines that state power and this objectivity of interest can provide a general starting point in the analysis of international politics. His fourth and fifth principles centre on the need to differentiate between the morality of the state and the individual. He believes that universal moral principles do not guide state behaviour even though that behaviour may have moral and ethical consequences. States are not moral agents, and their actions should be judged solely on the principle of national interest and survival. His final principle concerns the autonomy of the political sphere and its separation from the other spheres of human concern. Morganthau sees man as being pluralistic in nature and the political nature of man must be abstracted from all other aspects of human nature. He says, ‘A man who has nothing but ‘political man would be a beast, and as he considers the concept of interest defined in terms of power this ‘political man, ‘would be completely lacking moral constraints. The realist interpretation of the political man gives primacy to political considerations by defining interest in terms of power in contrast to the ‘economic man who thinks of interest defined as wealth. In the international structure, Morgenthau characterises states acting in a rational fashion because they carry out a cost-benefit analysis before proceeding with any action. In hypothetical terms country ‘A would only invade country ‘B if the benefits were far superior to the costs. He says ‘†¦a rational foreign policy to be good foreign policy; for only rational foreign policy minimizes risks and maximises benefits. Therefore this emphasises states as being unified and rational actors, with respect to the implementation of foreign policy. Furthermore, an additional concept of the classical realist paradigm is the balance of power between states in the international system. States align themselves with other states to form alliances and to feel more secure against the threat of a superpower. This reiterates the need for states to promote, their pre-eminent goal of survival and forming alliances and thus balancing of power ensures this. Alliances are seen by re alists as the paramount method of gaining power as the likelihood of invasion is reduced. Thus, the potential aggressor will have to attack more than one state, thereby in undertaking a cost-benefit analysis; the cost of an attack would outweigh the benefits. Morgenthau argues that states are the real actors in international politics and there is no supreme power or sovereign authority above them. The lack of governance consequently leads to an anarchic structure to the international system, thus creating the rise of insecurity. Initially, states begin with a defensive motive, but are forced to think and somewhat act inherently offensive because of the anarchic structure of the international system. As states are motivated by power and the pursuit of national interest, normally defined in security or military terms, to ensure their own survival the principle of self-help becomes more significant. It emphasises the need to differentiate between the international and domestic political structure. It surmises the domestic political system to be hierarchical, with the central government superior to local and district governments. In contrast, this clearly defined structure is absent in international politics, and therefore anarchy is dominant . In 1979, Kenneth Waltz published, ‘Theory of International Politics, and from this the neo-realist approach to international relations emerged. He sought to develop a more rigorous theory of international politics than earlier realists, like Morgenthau. Waltzs paradigm argues that, ‘classical realism understood the constraints inherent in anarchy but failed to develop a serious account of its structure. He believes the theory had to be defined precisely and in terms drawn from the thinking of the scientific method. Furthermore, he demonstrated how one can distinguish between the unit level and structural elements and then make connections between them. Waltz not only restricted the kind of theory he was producing but also its scope. He argued that there were patterns in the international system which recurs over time and these were products of the system itself, and not of its subsystems. He used this approach to show that the interdependence theory overstated the relianc e of great powers on other states, military power was extremely useful in preserving stability and that great hegemonic powers had a role in overseeing world affairs. Waltz judged there to be two types of system which were possible, hierarchical and anarchical. In the hierarchical system, different kinds of units are organised under a clear line of authority, whereas, ‘International systems are decentralized and anarchic, leading to units being similar in nature even though they may have different capabilities. The scientific approach by neo-realists is a specific aspect of the theory which distinguishes itself from classical realism. Waltz believes in a more methodological approach to the international system as the path to knowledge must originate from observable data from which an effective hypothesis can be made. Also by producing large data, regularities can be found and therefore hypotheses can be tested against further data. Furthermore no prior assumptions can be made, especially in regards to human nature, which opposes Morgenthaus realist paradigm. The data must also be open and explicit, about how it was gathered allowing modern theories to be rejected. Indeed, Waltz was able to produce three criteria to distinguish between the domestic political system and international system, and the first of these is the ordering principle. In agreement with the classical realist paradigm, the anarchic system has lead to a lack of authority and a self-help system. He says, ‘each unit se eks its own good: the result of a number of units simultaneously doing so transcends the motives and aims of the separate units. States are only able to survive if they increase their military capabilities and therefore enhancing the security of it. It is the ordering principle that Waltz believes, leads to states performing identical primary tasks. This very doctrine assumes that states have to defend themselves but in conjunction to this preparation, a ‘spiral of insecurity gives rise to a security dilemma, in the system. When states increase military spending and build up arms, other neighbouring states may feel undermined and threatened, even though the build up was entirely defensive. In believing that states perform the same primary functions, the neighbouring states start to build up their arms. This leads to an arms race as states continually act to restore the balance of power, a race which Waltz argues stops when equilibrium is reached. This corrective mechanism is seen as part of the nature of the system allowing the removal of human nature when describing the power struggle between states. In Waltzs second principle, he emphasises the anarchic structure of the international system which leads to states being independent, separate yet formally still being equal units in the system. Waltz writes, ‘states†¦are not formally differentiated by the functions they perform, therefore due to the anarchical structure of the system, states remain like units. Since each state performs the same tasks, ‘†¦the ends they aspire to are similar. Furthermore, the states recognise its interests must only count on its own resources as they, ‘all do more business at home than abroad. He stresses that it is their ability to accomplish these tasks, which distinguishes states not the actual functions they accomplish. Indeed, due to states performing the same important primary tasks it signifies the inability to differentiate them from on another, yet it is their actual distribution of capabilities which does distinguish them. Waltz states, ‘The structure of a system changes with changes in the distribution of capabilities across the systems units. The distribution, allows the prediction of the balance of power and the comparative power of the states in the system. Waltz argues that states in anarchy prefer the balance of power, as the power of other states is interpreted as aggressive. Neo-realists see the balance of power between great powers always occurring as it is a natural phenomenon in the anarchic system. The actual balance of power implementation of this balance is not done by diplomats, declare neo-realists, rather it is a spontaneous and corrective mechanism. All forms of realism therefore have a number of characteristics that are in common such as emphasis on the importance of the state and political groups, especially the military, and not the individual. They also advocate the continuity of human condition, for Morgenthaus realism this is embodied within human nature, whereas for neo-realism this is centred on anarchy as the ordering principle. In both approaches, anarchy is paramount in the international system and this creates powerful incentives for aggression. Therefore, due to the lack of constraints on states implies that conflict is the natural state of the system. The role of diplomats in both paradigms is to act competitively, but Morgenthau stresses the personification of states with respect to human nature and the pursuit of self-interest, while Waltzs theory is that policies arise in the need to compete for security to be maintained in the system. ‘Neo-realism stresses continuities but it does not deny the existence o f change, as Waltz concedes that militarily change has occurred in the international system yet the fundamental organising principle has not. Despite their differences over the question of co-operation in the international system, both neo-realists and realists both construct upon assumptions that the main units in the international system, explicitly states, are assumed to be self-interested and rational. Furthermore, both theorists have contrary views on stability of the international system. Morgenthau argues that the balance of power in a system is governed by policies of states. However, Waltz contends that, ‘these balances tend to form whether some or all states consciously aim to establish and maintain balance, or whether some or all states aim for universal domination, therefore, he is more interested in the impact of power on state behaviour rather than the opposite. Neo-realism advocates that whether states consciously pursue a balancing policy or not is irrelevant for explaining the probability of peace or war. Furthermore, another debate in system stability is concentrated up polarity, the number of power centres in the system, on the probability of war. Morgenthau advocated the system stability was achievable only through the effects of a multipolar balance of power. This is more stable international order because of, ‘the plenitude of interacting partners mean s that there is a greatly reduced danger of mutually reinforcing antagonism between both states. Individual states will have associations with a great variety of others; their cross-cutting loyalties will tend to reduce hostility expressed toward one particular state or against one particular cause. However, Waltz dismisses this supposition and develops a theory of bipolar stability in which he argues is more stable because, ‘competition in multipolar systems is more complicated than competition in bipolar ones, and as a result, ‘uncertainties about the comparative capabilities of states multiply as numbers grow. The inclusion of only two leading powers allows fewer grey areas in the system, as interests are clearly defined and produce less opportunity for misperceptions. Furthermore, Waltz deems the bipolar system easier to manage, as change can be monitored closely and therefore, the chance of conflict is significantly reduced. This is in contrast to a multipolar syste m where, ‘there is a highly probability in an increase in the number of international conflicts. A bipolar system can have but one antagonism; multipolarity, on the other hand, may have virtually numberless frictions. However, both theories have defects when applying them to the present international system. They both ignore other important actors which are not states, such as multinational companies. Liberal pluralists highlighted the understanding of non-state actors, undermining the state-centric world of realism. Keohane and Nye claimed that world politics was no longer the exclusive preserve of states and that, ‘the growth of transnational organizations has lead to the state-centric paradigm becoming progressively inadequate, therefore a new theory called complex interdependence was introduced to run as an alternative to realism. Additionally, with both theories overemphasising power being defined as having strength in the military, this therefore, dismisses other means of being powerful such as economic and territorial strengths. It is arguable therefore, that neo-realism as propagated by Waltz, is a doctrine that adds and improves on Morgenthaus realist theory. His ability to apply a more scientific and methodological approach allows the theory to be clearly defined and tested. In addition, it responds more accurately to the question of economic theory as Waltz argues that while the growth of wealth maybe infinite, states must stress security to promote its survival. However, Morgenthaus doctrine should not be completely dismissed as Waltz still agrees that states as pursuing self-interests to promote their own survival. Though, to a greater extent it is arguable that Waltzs obligation to include the concept of a corrective mechanism, when portraying the balance of power and the fact that no prior assumptions are made on human nature, underlines a more rigorous and precise approach to international relations. BIBLIOGRAPHY Burchill, Scott Theories of International Relations (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001) pp. 70-99 Keohane, Robert O. and Nye, Joseph S. Transnational relations and World Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973) pp. ix-xxix Linklater, Andrew, ‘Neo-Realism in Theory and Practice, in Booth, Ken and Smith, Steve International Relations Theory Today (Cambridge: Polity, 1995) pp. 241-262 Mearsheimer, John ‘Back to the Future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War, International Security, Vol. 15, No. 1, (Summer, 1990) pp. 5-56 Mearsheimer, John ‘The False Promise of International Institutions, International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3, (Winter, 1994-1995) pp. 5-49 Morgenthau, Hans J. Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1955) pp. 3-13, 320-340 Rosecrance, Richard ‘Bipolarity, Multipolarity, and the Future, The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 10, No. 3, (Autumn, 1996) pp. 314-327 Waltz, Kenneth Theory of International Politics (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1979) pp. 48-57, 110-120 Waltz, Kenneth ‘Structural Realism after the Cold War, International Security, Vol. 25, No. 1, (Summer, 2000) pp. 5-41

Accomplishment Report Format Essay

Introduction The school year 2005-2006 is still blissful for Sagada National High School. It is still an uphill battle and struggle to have a school building, a Filipino teacher, and basic facilities like library, chairs, and laboratory. As of now SNHS still squats on a dilapidated bayanihan building and a makeshift building in the compound of the Sagada Central Elementary School. In spite of these limitations, the school continues to reap honors for its name and to make a difference. For this school year it asserted its strong presence in mathematical competitions. Twice in a row, it represented the Division in the Regional MTAP Oral in the fourth year level. It participated in the National Press Conference held in Kalibo, Aklan. It also shines in sports as well as in beauty contests. Aside from MPGCHS, Sagada National High School is one of only two SMART schools in the Division of Mt. Province. Its application has already been approved. A tie up with SMART means the implementation of the ICT curriculum one of the signature programs of the school. SMART has already started providing for technical training for the faculty members. The inauguration of the school as a SMART school was moved from March to June. Through a raffle fund raising project, the school was able to acquire six computer units. All in all it has 13 computers, including five, courtesy of Hon. Congressman Dominguez. This last April the computer laboratory was set up. This is for the graduates to have summer computer training before they enroll for college this coming school year. This humbling experience was made possible due to the dedication and commitment of the faculty members and the strong support of the PTCA and other stake holders of the school. Basic Performance Indicators: 1. Promotion Rate- 259/281 = 92.17% 2. Completion Rate- 67/89 = 75.28% 3. Graduation Rate- 67/69 = 97.10% 4. Retention Rate- 136/150 = 90.67% 5. Dropout Rate- 7/281 = 2.49% 6. Cohort Survival Rate- 69/89 = 77.53% 7. Repetition Rate- 3/295 = 1.02% 8. Gross Teacher Ratio= 281/9 = 1:31 9. Participation Rate- Data not available 10. Gross Enrollment Ratio- Data not complete 11. Transition Rate-Data not complete Enrollment We expected that the enrollment of SNHS dropped considerably because of the attractive facilities offered by St. Mary’s School. There was a massive recruitment by the alumni of Saint Mary’s. However, tentative enrollment posted by the school shows that SNHS posted a total of 71 first year students while SMS has only 32 first year students. The table below shows the actual enrollment: Highlights of Accomplishment 1. Acquisition of six computers through a raffle fund raising- Through the initiative of the PTCA, the faculty members and the student body the they were able to raise a considerable amount used to purchase six computer units. 2. Setting up of the Computer Laboratory- SNHS can’t afford to lose its students just because it does not have a computer laboratory which is readily available at the Saint Mary’s School. Aside from the six computers which came from the fund raising, we were able to solicit other units and together with the computers given by Congressman Dominguez, we have 13 units. With this we set up the computer laboratory with the help of our Peace Corp volunteer Mr. Daniel Ziegler. Right now our graduates are having hands-on summer training in computer usage. 3. Tying-up with SMART- SNHS is a SMART school. SMART company approved our application; hence it will assist us by giving two computers, computer accessories like printers, web cameras, and scanner.Besides, they will assist us in the installation of the internet connection for the students and right now two of our teachers were on technical training for this in Subic. Ultimately they will be with us in the planned implementation of the ICT curriculum. 4. Setting-up of our Website- It has been a year since SNHS came online. This is courtesy of Mr. Kent Sinkey, a retired computer analyst from the University of Cincinnati who assisted us in the setting up of our website. A member of the PTCA based in London is shouldering the cost of the website for the school. Mr. Sinkey also trained two of our students in website development. 5. Free Summer Training in Computer Usage- As requested by the PTCA, the graduates are  having summer training on computer usage in the computer laboratory of the school. Daniel Ziegler our Peace Corp volunteer is assisting us in computer instruction. 6. At the beginning of the 2005-2006 school year the faculty donated money so the school could have an internet connection in order to do faculty research, have e-mail and maintain this electronic yearbook. Josephine Buyagan was kind enough to donate the money necessary for our domain name and website hosting.

Sound and Images, the Culture and the Role of Media

Due to the fast evolution of the technology in the society, there has been an increasing integration of sound and images in the media that people are exposed to. The film industry started only with moving images. Later on, as technology progressed, it became possible for sound to be integrated to it, making the experience of watching these movies more pleasurable. Naturally, the integration of sound and images also helps create a greater level of the believability of the movies that people watch. This means that people are able now to suspend their disbelief more easily and immerse themselves into the movies that they are watching. The message that images carry in this regard become more pronounced since they are able to manipulate sound as well. Given the joining of these disjointed features of film that may be generated in different times and in different locations, such an interaction of sound, space, and image reinforce the postmodernism ethos already affecting media, culture and the awareness of people around the world (Darley, 2000). The recent innovations in sound and image integration also give power to the visual digital culture being propagated among young people nowadays. A lot of media platform use this integration such as music videos, film, video games, and other platforms. With the changes in digital visual culture, there has been a change in the way that story, representation, and meaning are being presented to the audience. This is remarkably different from the way that traditional visual culture enhances the experience of audience (Darley, 2000). Audiences now are more critical of style, sensation and image performance. According to Frith, Goodwin, and Grossberg (1993), studying sound and image would require the serious student of mass communication to look into the nature of music television and the way it shapes perceptions among people young and old. Music videos, particularly, are making it possible for young people to redefine their styles and their views. Such approach would of course take a look at particular aspects of the development of young people’s personalities and views. In this kind of analysis, psychology and sociology come into the fore to analyze the impact of sound and image integration into the lives of those who adhere to this form of media. Modern video, with its integration of music and sound is now emerging as an important platform of mass media being analyzed by mass communication practitioners and theorists in the world today. The role of sound and image in this area of media production cannot be discounted. As such, these two platforms become carriers of meaning, which can be more easily understood by viewers and audiences alike (Cubitt, 1993). With sound and image, the practice of the imagination to recreate a place or a scene in the mind is no longer needed. In fact, since the setting, the actions in question, and the dialogues of the characters are played out as clearly as possible, little is left in the imagination as to how it could have occurred otherwise. With books in the form of novel and short stories, the viewers participate in the creation of virtual worlds in their minds. The way that the protagonist looks and how he speaks are all objects of imagination which he has to recreate based on the text that he reads. With image and sound, however, this is done away with. He just have to keep his eyes wide open and ears listening and he will understand what is being played out in the movies or shows that he is watching and enjoying. The emergence of video where sound and image interaction is already a given also has an important impact on how people make sense of themselves as members of the society and as individuals trying to make sense of their world. Through the movies and shows that they watch, new variables and ways of looking at things are being brought to the fore. Where will these mediations lead them? Do these mediations lead to a better understanding of their lives and their world? Or do they introduce new practices and views that undermine the prevalent understanding regarding their world and their environment (Cubitt, 1993). Through these videos also, there are cultural practices that are evolving. Such practices help artists and their audience find expressions for their passions and the way in which sound and image interact in creating cultural items. These movies and shows then carry cultural weight with them, which can fill the curiosity of students of mass communication for years to come. Conclusion People never imagined that image and sound can attain the heights that they have already achieved so far. There are still advancements along the way. Whatever forms of progress this will take, for sure, videography, and the way that sound, image, and motion interact with each other will challenge traditional perspectives in trying to understand mass media and the impact that it exerts on the development of the culture of society. These changes may be little but they are all significant. Reference Campbell, R., Martin, C. R., & Fabos, B. (Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication. Bedford: St. Martin’s Press. Cubitt, S. (1993). Videography: Video Media as Art and Culture. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Darley, A. (2000). Visual Digital Culture: Surface Play and Spectacle in New Media Genres. London: Routledge. Frith, S., Goodwin, A. & Grossberg, L. (1993). Sound and Vision: The Music Video Reader. London: Routledge. Â   Â   Â  

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